(Xiong Guangqing) The epidemic poses new challenges to w88 live casino public health system
(Source: "People's Forum" 2020-04-10)
[Abstract] As an old capitalist country, the United Kingdom took the lead in establishing a relatively complete public health system and invested heavily in public health, fully embodying the principle of "prevention first, prevention first, and proactive service". w88 live casino public health system has its own characteristics and advantages, and has achieved remarkable results in the prevention and control of infectious diseases. Currently, emerging infectious diseases are showing new characteristics, and the spread of the global epidemic has posed new challenges to the UK's response to public health emergencies. In this regard, the UK needs to further strengthen the monitoring and analysis of emerging infectious diseases, improve prevention and control capabilities, and strengthen international cooperation. At the same time, based on the characteristics of emerging infectious diseases, we should give full play to our advantages and expertise and adjust prevention and control strategies in a timely manner.
[Key words] British public health system Infectious disease prevention and control [Chinese classification number] K561 [Document identification code] A
Since March 2020, the COVID-19 epidemic has spread rapidly in the UK. w88 live casino government has repeatedly proposed prevention and control measures, which have achieved certain results. During this period, the UK fell into the whirlpool of international public opinion for proposing the method of "herd immunity". At present, the UK has begun to take strict control measures, requiring schools to close and cafes, restaurants, bars, gyms and sports centers to temporarily close operations. As a country with a relatively complete public health system, the effectiveness of the UK's COVID-19 prevention and control deserves further attention.
The creation and development of w88 live casino public health system
In the 1760s, the Industrial Revolution first started in the United Kingdom. However, British urban planning did not quickly adapt to the pace of urbanization brought about by the Industrial Revolution. This resulted in a very poor urban living environment and public health situation in the United Kingdom. By the 19th century, urban public health problems in Britain had become very prominent, with large-scale infectious diseases often breaking out. This caused w88 live casino to pay attention to infectious diseases and public health conditions. They gradually changed their public health concepts and launched a long-lasting and large-scale public health campaign.
The British public health campaign began in the 1830s and 1940s and continued until the beginning of the First World War. The rise of this public health movement has a lot to do with the promotion of Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890). Chadwick firmly believed that prevention of infectious diseases was cheaper and more effective than treatment. From 1832 to 1854, he advocated and promoted British public health legislation and public health reform, and made important contributions in promoting urban sanitation, w88 casino construction, children's education and many other public undertakings. In 1848, the United Kingdom passed the Public Health Act, the world's first modern public health act. It marked the British government's abandonment of liberal principles and its use of state power to manage public health affairs. However, the Public Health Act is a permissive act, and the mandatory powers of the central health agency, the Central Health Commission, are basically replaced by permissive and advisory powers. This has led to many problems and contradictions during the implementation process, making it difficult to fundamentally improve the public health situation.
In the 1860s, the public health situation in Britain did not improve. In particular, cholera still occurred frequently, which urgently required reform of the public health system. In 1872 and 1875, the United Kingdom passed the Public Health Act twice, which effectively promoted the improvement of w88 live casino public health system. In 1875, the Public Health Act passed in the United Kingdom consolidated the local management mechanism of public health in the form of strengthened legislation, and local governments gained more power. It requires that every region in the country must appoint a medical chief of health and assigns many important responsibilities, including: garbage disposal, street cleaning, infectious disease prevention and control, hospital construction, housing management and many other public health areas. In this way, the state's power in public health management was strengthened, and the modern British public health system was basically established, becoming one of the important foundations of w88 live casino welfare state system.
In 1948, the United Kingdom began to establish a complete National Health Service (NHS). The establishment of this system was a major institutional innovation in global public health. Its design and operation are guided by three core principles: it is accessible to all, it is provided free of charge, and its services are based on medical need rather than ability to pay. Since the operation of this system, although some health institutions have been relatively inefficient and there have been calls for market reforms, it is undeniable that this has improved the service level of w88 live casino medical system and has been widely praised for its fairness, accessibility and safety. This not only protects the health of British citizens, but also serves as a good example for the development of public health in other countries and promotes the improvement of public health conditions in many countries.
In the process of building w88 live casino public health system, response to public health emergencies has also received considerable attention. In 1990, w88 live casino Ministry of Health's Emergency Planning Collaboration Unit (EPCU) published the first set of national response guidance plans for the National Health Service. This plan has since been revised and improved many times, forming a relatively complete response plan for public health emergencies. In April 2003, the United Kingdom established the Health Protection Agency (HPA), which is dedicated to protecting public health and reducing the impact of infectious diseases on the public. w88 live casino Health Protection Agency has seven departments, namely: Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Department, Microbiological Services Department, Infectious Disease Surveillance Center, Rapid Emergency Response Department, Chemical and Drug Department, Enterprise Development Department and International Research Cooperation Department. In addition, it has established 60 branches across the country, responsible for the coordination and handling of public health emergencies in various places, providing response plans for new threats faced by the public health field, and providing training for medical personnel and infectious disease surveillance services.
Characteristics and advantages of w88 live casino public health system
The UK has strong economic strength and technological level, and has invested heavily in public health, fully embodying the principle of "prevention first, prevention first, and proactive service". Its public health system has the following characteristics:
First, adhere to the concept of "great prevention". Most of the funds used for public health in the UK come from taxpayers. The government invests a lot of public health expenses and mobilizes and utilizes various social resources to participate in public health work. Commercial medical insurance only plays a supplementary role in w88 live casino medical insurance system. w88 live casino government effectively guarantees that every citizen has the right to free medical treatment. In the UK, both workers and non-workers, regardless of their ability to pay, regardless of nationality, economic status, race, etc., can receive free comprehensive medical services.
w88 live casino infectious disease prevention system is also relatively complete. The UK National Health Service is responsible for diagnosing and treating people with infectious diseases and has important responsibilities in preventing and controlling infectious diseases, including implementing public health plans, preventing the spread of infectious diseases, surveying local communities, and monitoring infectious diseases. Public Health England is the lead agency responsible for responding to public health crises, guiding the prevention and control of infectious diseases through the development of policies and prevention and treatment standards. w88 live casino public health department adopts multiple lines of defense to prevent infectious diseases. w88 live casino National Screening and Immunization Program is the frontline line of defense. With the help of smart medical systems, each person's vaccination information and past medical history can be queried.
Second, the plan should be clear and the responsibilities should be clear. The specific links in the UK's response to public health emergencies are very complete. The first is infectious disease surveillance. This is the first step in detecting infectious diseases. The second is to issue a guidance outline. For serious infectious diseases within the scope of surveillance, British functional departments will issue relevant guidance outlines, detailing the characteristics, hazards, prevention and control measures and precautions of infectious diseases. The third is epidemic reporting. When dealing with a major epidemic, w88 live casino health department will issue epidemic bulletins every day to help the public understand the status of the epidemic. The fourth is to pay attention to popularizing epidemic prevention knowledge. The health department will introduce relevant knowledge to the public through various forms and channels such as exhibitions and media. w88 live casino Health Protection Agency also has an important function, which is to improve its ability to respond quickly to public health emergencies, provide authoritative professional advice to the public and other institutions, and minimize the impact of public health emergencies. The UK attaches great importance to the implementation of the first-diagnosis responsibility system and focuses on avoiding cross-infection during centralized medical treatment. In the UK, epidemiologists have high authority, and health departments at all levels also respect and play the role of epidemiologists. There is also a well-functioning community engagement system in the UK public health system. Its goal is to shape the National Health Service from an organization that only provides services to a patient-oriented organization that can actively respond to patients' needs and enable them to obtain more relevant information.
Third, w88 live casino public health system is relatively sound, with detailed and clear vertical division of labor and smooth and effective horizontal linkage. The UK public health emergency response system is managed vertically. The main responsibilities of the Ministry of Public Health and its subordinate agencies are to formulate, promulgate, revise and maintain public health emergency response plans, formulate guiding guidelines for responding to public health emergencies, provide intellectual support to local government departments, conduct performance evaluations of relevant local government departments, promote public health emergency response preparations, and summarize experiences and lessons learned in handling public health emergencies. The specific implementation of public health emergencies response is carried out by the National Health Service and its commissioned agencies. The local National Health Service is an entity with a high degree of autonomy, receiving only work guidance from the Ministry of Public Health. Its responsibility is to ensure that local health services can respond quickly to public health emergencies. Generally speaking, the public health emergency emergency coordination group is responsible for specifying emergency response policies and coordinating the work of other departments; the local offices of the Ministry of Public Health are responsible for coordinating regional cooperation; the mobile medical rescue bureau is responsible for incidence assessment, early warning, identification, management and coordination of various activities at the emergency site; the emergency bureau is responsible for dispatching health experts and mobile medical teams to the incident site.
Improvement of w88 live casino public health emergency response system
w88 live casino public health system has its own characteristics and advantages, and has achieved very good results in the prevention and control of infectious diseases. However, currently emerging infectious diseases are showing new characteristics, and global infectious diseases have become a problem that requires high vigilance, which poses new challenges to w88 live casino public health emergency response system.
First, it is necessary to further strengthen the monitoring and analysis of emerging infectious diseases and improve the prevention and control capabilities of emerging infectious diseases. When w88 live casino Health Protection Agency was established in 2003, it took over the former National Infectious Disease Testing Center, established a new infectious disease surveillance center, and established 12 regional infectious disease testing centers, thus building a strong infectious disease surveillance network. The center houses public health laboratories at both national and regional levels and can play a very important role in the UK infectious disease surveillance network. In recent years, many new infectious diseases have emerged in the world, making the situation of infectious disease prevention and control even more severe. Emerging infectious diseases have many new characteristics that were not seen in previous infectious diseases, which are far beyond the scope of people's understanding, and understanding them will inevitably require a relatively long process. Neither the Ebola epidemic nor the COVID-19 epidemic recognized the seriousness of the problem from the beginning, making it difficult to adopt timely and effective response measures and means. The Ebola virus, named after the Ebola River, was prevalent in 1976, with a fatality rate as high as 90%. However, when it became popular again, humans were not vigilant at first. In 2014, a serious Ebola epidemic occurred in West Africa. The Ebola virus spread for three months with almost no medical intervention before the World Health Organization Africa Office confirmed a new Ebola outbreak. As far as the UK is concerned, to shoulder its responsibility as a global leader in public health, it is necessary to use its advanced infectious disease detection and surveillance system to monitor and provide early warning for emerging infectious diseases.
Second, it can further play an important role and make due contributions in the field of international cooperation in the prevention and control of infectious diseases. Currently, the prevention and control of global infectious diseases requires more international cooperation. With the in-depth development of economic globalization, countries around the world are interpenetrating and interdependent in economic, political, social, cultural and other aspects, and global problems are increasing day by day. These global issues involve the future and destiny of mankind, and are related to the interests of all countries and regions. They cannot be solved by one country or a few countries and require coordinated actions by the international community. The UK has a good foundation and conditions for playing a role in international cooperation on infectious diseases. The UK is a country that attaches great importance to health diplomacy. Its health diplomacy is closely integrated with development assistance and plays an important role in the field of international public health. In today's world, an international health legal system based on the World Health Organization Law and the International Health Regulations has been formed. However, many countries still have insufficient understanding of global infectious disease prevention and control, and the global infectious disease prevention and control system still has serious flaws, which will affect the effective advancement of global cooperation in preventing and controlling infectious diseases. The UK can play an important role in international cooperation in the prevention and control of infectious diseases.
Third, according to the characteristics of emerging infectious diseases, we should give full play to our advantages and expertise and adjust prevention and control strategies in a timely manner. Although w88 live casino public health system is relatively complete, its medical resources are still relatively tight, and there are still shortcomings that make it difficult to deal with large-scale epidemic infectious diseases. The UK healthcare system has a wide range of primary care facilities as an alternative to hospitals, with low intensive care unit (ICU) capacity. Data show that the UK has an average of 2.8 doctors per 1,000 people, while France, Italy and Germany have 3.2, 4.0 and 4.3 respectively; the UK has an average of 7.8 nurses per 1,000 people, while Germany has 12.9; the UK has 6.6 intensive care beds per 100,000 people, ranking last among Western European countries.
For emerging infectious diseases, some necessary response measures may conflict with the current British laws and require necessary adjustments. For example, in the prevention and control of the new coronavirus epidemic, isolation is one of the most effective measures. But in the UK, quarantine involves restrictions on personal freedoms and is difficult to enforce quickly. On March 3, 2020, the United Kingdom issued its first prevention and control measures for the new coronavirus epidemic. These measures include that if the epidemic continues to develop, some schools may be affected and closed, prohibiting large-scale events with dense crowds, and encouraging people to work from home. On March 12, 2020, Patrick Vallance, the UK's chief scientific adviser, proposed the term "herd immunity". w88 live casino government also agreed with the term "herd immunity" and hoped that 60% of the population would be infected with COVID-19 to enhance national immunity. However, at present, the UK is forced to take strict control measures due to the severe prevention and control situation.
[References]
①Tian Mingxiao: "Public Health Concepts in Britain in the 19th Century", "Zhejiang Academic Journal", Issue 6, 2017.
②Gao Lu: "Comparison and Experience Drawing between Chinese and British Public Health Emergency Systems", "Chinese and Foreign Medical Research", Issue 12, 2011.
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