Constructing the “Chinese w88 casino” of International Relations Theory: Value Dimension and Practical Logic
(China Social Sciences Network2020July 16, 2019)
Author: Zhao Yang
Since entering the 21st century, international relations research has developed by leaps and bounds in China. The academic production capacity of Chinese academic circles—to borrow Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall’s terminology, is “productive power,” that is, the production of social differentiation of subjectivity in a system of meanings—is also increasing (Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, 2005, p. 43). Chinese scholars began to consciously engage in theoretical innovation, trying to construct a theoretical framework different from the Western model to break through the insufficient explanatory power of existing theories in the face of new changes in world politics. By combining Western international relations theory, the essence of traditional Chinese culture and Marxist-related ideas, Chinese scholars have made significant achievements in building a Chinese w88 casino of international relations theory.
The significance of building a Chinese w88 casino
As a social science, there is no “one size fits all” theory in w88 online casino betting relations. If we only focus on introducing and promoting foreign theories and applying them to explain China's practical activities in the w88 online casino betting community, we will inevitably face the embarrassing situation of "insufficient soil and water". The development of world politics has become increasingly characterized by a "multiplex world" in which operating rules and systems are not dominated by a single country or a small number of countries with similar positions. In fact, it is composed of parts with different patterns in culture and politics, but in which various regions and levels are interconnected and interdependent, and governance at global, regional and local levels overlaps with each other (Amitav Acharya, 2018, p. 30). In such a diverse world, each region needs to have an w88 online casino betting relations theory that reflects its own agency, so as to better participate in w88 online casino betting practical activities. The existing w88 online casino betting relations theory is centered on Western powers and does not reflect the agency of non-Western countries or regions. In other words, traditional w88 online casino betting relations theory tends to regard the non-Western world as the “object” rather than the “subject” of w88 online casino betting relations (Amitav Acharya, 2018, p. 19). In these theories, the role of non-Western countries in transforming the world is underestimated or even completely ignored. They are only objects "shaped", "constructed" or "socialized" by Western countries. They only need to accept various concepts and norms dominated by Western countries that support the existence of w88 online casino betting society. In fact, concepts and norms in w88 online casino betting society have specific circumstances of origin. Agency means that these concepts and norms can meet the needs of other actors in various different or unique environments. In other words, they need to be applicable to the circumstances in which all actors find themselves in a global order (Amitav Acharya, 2018, pp. 20-21). As many scholars have noted, norms and systems in w88 online casino betting society do not originate only in Western countries. Norms from the non-Western world, especially those involving development, security, and ecological issues, have been widely accepted by countries around the world and adopted by the United Nations and other agencies as core concepts for actions in related fields.
In a certain sense, existing w88 online casino betting relations theories do not reflect the voices, experiences and knowledge of most countries in the world. Developing non-Western w88 online casino betting relations theory is a grand project, which includes acknowledging pluralistic universalism, reflecting on the shortcomings of existing theories and research methods, drawing new knowledge from countries and regions that have been ignored so far, avoiding ethnocentrism, and focusing on the agency of non-Western countries in building a global order (Amitav Acharya, 2014, p. 647). In the knowledge pedigree of contemporary w88 online casino betting relations, because the knowledge construction of non-Western countries has long been marginalized, the understanding of the nature, operating rules and future development trends of world politics has also been excluded from the mainstream discourse system for a long time, and therefore is often ignored by people. Introducing non-Western discourses into w88 online casino betting relations theory is about studying "oppressed knowledges" in w88 online casino betting relations. It requires an in-depth exploration of alternative interpretations of the real world and shows that these interpretations are promoted by a substantive discourse different from the dominant one (Jennifer Milliken, 1999, p. 243). For the non-Western world, including China, developing w88 online casino betting relations theory with local characteristics is of great theoretical and practical significance.
First of all, theoretically speaking, Western theories tend to understand world politics from a static perspective, viewing w88 online casino betting relations as a process of continuous cycle rather than progressive development. Robert Gilpin pointed out in this regard that the history of w88 online casino betting relations is a cyclical process of transitioning from a state of equilibrium to a state of disequilibrium, and finally returning to an equilibrium state through hegemonic war within the system. In this process, only the equilibrium state—that is, a state in which no country believes that changes in the system will bring additional benefits consistent with the expected costs of changing the system—is stable (Robert Gilpin, 1981, p. 11). When the unbalanced growth of power among countries leads to changes in the w88 online casino betting power structure, so that powerful countries expect to gain sufficient benefits from changing the status quo, powerful countries as rational actors will not hesitate to destroy the stability of the system to seek more interests for themselves, thus pushing the w88 online casino betting system into a new cycle.
At the same time, this static view is still reflected in the views of most Western scholars. Since the birth of w88 online casino betting relations as an independent discipline, the nature of w88 online casino betting relations has not changed in any way. When w88 online casino betting relations was first born in 1919, it mainly focused on various problems faced by the newly established League of Nations at that time, and its theoretical origins were rooted in the political and ideological tradition of the Western world. In the view of many Western scholars, although pre-modern political units are different from states, which are the constituent elements of modern w88 online casino betting relations, in terms of scale and ideology, their behavioral patterns are the same. In any era, maintaining and improving security is the primary goal of political units, so whether in anarchy or hierarchy, political units exhibit self-help behavioral patterns; whether in ancient times or in modern times, affected by differences in race, culture, and language, fear and the resulting pursuit of power have always dominated relations between different groups (Ken Booth, 2019, p. 360). Therefore, in Western w88 online casino betting relations, the dominant issue is always the issue of national survival and security. Although over time, there have been some changes in world politics, such as technological changes, the development of globalization, and increasing attention to human rights, leading some people to believe that an interconnected global community composed of different countries or peoples will emerge. However, compared with a hundred years ago, the fundamental issues in w88 online casino betting relations have not changed. They are still order and security, power and restraint, freedom and peace (William Bain, 2019, p. 132). From this perspective, although Western scholars do not completely deny the possibility of progress in w88 online casino betting relations, they also believe that there are many unchangeable factors that hinder and prevent the progressive change of w88 online casino betting relations.
Secondly, from a practical perspective, the limitations of Western experience also limit the vision of non-Western countries such as China in understanding w88 online casino betting reality, causing the latter to unconsciously align with the former in their thinking patterns, which in turn limits non-Western countries from exploring solutions to w88 online casino betting problems. Take the debate among Chinese and foreign academic circles on whether China and the United States can transcend the "Thucydides Trap" as an example. This concept was originally shaped by Western scholars based on their own historical experience. According to this "law of history", China's development will inevitably lead to conflicts between China and the United States, because when the strength of the rising country becomes closer and closer to that of the established country, serious structural pressure will arise. In this context, even small diplomatic incidents can lead to large-scale inter-state conflicts (Graham Allison, 2017, p. 29). In existing academic debates, Chinese scholars are often unconsciously brought into the discourse system presupposed by Western theories, that is, by citing various arguments, using different research methods, and from different theoretical perspectives to demonstrate that China and the United States can transcend the "Thucydides Trap" without fundamentally deconstructing the legitimacy of the concept itself. In fact, based on historical and cultural traditions that are different from those of the West, the Chinese do not believe that the "Thucydides Trap" is a "law of history", nor do they believe that the conflict between a rising power and an established country is inevitable. For the Chinese, the "Thucydides Trap" is a concept constructed by Western discourse and is not an objective reality that exists in world politics. However, because Chinese scholars often have pre-accepted the existence of this concept in their thinking, they cannot fundamentally shake its stability. Instead, they analyze it as an established fact and explore the possibility of China transcending Thucydides’ Trap. The debate on the "Thucydides Trap" at home and abroad shows from the side that the hegemony of Western academic discourse has affected the background knowledge of Chinese scholars to a considerable extent. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate this hegemony and develop an w88 online casino betting relations theory different from the West. Only in this way can we create a more friendly external environment for the development of non-Western countries such as China.
The current situation of the development of China’s national relations theory
“Theory always serves specific people and specific goals” (Robert Cox, 1981, p. 128). Without the theory of international relations with Chinese characteristics, it would be impossible to show China’s good intentions for peaceful development to the world and explain China’s development model from a theoretical perspective. In recent years, Chinese scholars have begun to consciously carry out theoretical innovation to construct an international relations theory with Chinese characteristics that is different from the Western discourse system. Currently, Chinese scholars have made major innovations and improvements in the existing international relations theory in the three fields of symbiosis theory, relationship theory and moral realism, and these three fields are also known as the three major theoretical innovations of the Chinese w88 casino today (Guo Shuyong, 2017, p. 19). Of course, building a local theoretical system is not an overnight process. It is affected by the changes in the objective international environment faced by China, changes in China's own status and role in the international system, and the development of China's domestic international relations. It has experienced local development and overall self-development. The process of awareness, systematization and theorization involves the emergence of the Chinese w88 casino consciousness, the establishment of the Chinese w88 casino as a theoretical awareness in the academic community, the formation of an academic community, and the integration of national awareness into theoretical innovation (Guo Shuyong, 2017, pp. 20-21). As the final stage of theory formation, some Chinese scholars have consciously brought their country’s traditional thoughts and historical and cultural experiences into international relations theory, highlighting the “Chinese style” and “Chinese characteristics” of the theory.
Compared with Western academic circles, Chinese w88 online casino betting relations research is in a period of rising theoretical construction. From the perspective of academic development, when the research on macro theory reaches a certain level, further innovation will become arduous. At this point, scholars have three options: First, turn to explanations of specific issues rather than building a grand theoretical system. For this reason, some Western scholars have turned to research on mesotheories characterized by “analytical eclecticism”—that is, specific theories constructed to explain a set of specific empirical phenomena rather than a general explanation model (Rudra Hill and Peter Katzenstein, 2013, p. 19). This theory is not a pure narration of facts, but can explain the causal mechanism behind the facts within a limited scope. The second is to construct different "branches" within a theoretical system. For example, constructivist theory made great progress in the 1990s, but entered a bottleneck period after the 21st century. Therefore, scholars have turned to develop different branches based on the original constructivist theoretical system, such as pragmatic constructivism (Peter M. Haas and Ernst B. Haas, 2002), realistic constructivism (J. Samuel Barkin, 2003), community constructivism (Lars-Erik Cederman and Christopher Daase, 2003), post-constructivism (Janice Bially Mattern, 2005) and common sense constructivism (Ted Hopf, 2013) etc. The third is to reinterpret and interpret classical theories to discover things that were previously ignored in classical theories and classic works. An example is that some Western scholars have begun to reinterpret the ideas of Edward Carr, Hans Morgenthau, and Kenneth Waltz in recent years, focusing on certain contents that have been ignored in previous studies (Chris Brown, 2012; Milan Babik, 2013; David Polansky, 2016; Kavi Joseph Abraham, 2017; Jonathan Joseph and Milja Kuiki, 2018; Keith Smith, 2019; Tom Lundborg, 2019; Stefano Guzzini, 2020). Compared with foreign theoretical research that has entered a mature period and a bottleneck period, the construction of China's w88 online casino betting relations theoretical system is still in an upward stage of development, and scholars with different knowledge backgrounds are still needed to promote theoretical innovation and progress from different angles. This is also a great opportunity for Chinese scholars.
Disadvantages that Chinese schools of thought should avoid
Although significant progress has been made in building a local theoretical system, there are still some issues worthy of attention in the current research on China's international relations. These problems may affect the efforts of the academic community to build the China w88 casino, and solving these problems may push the study of Chinese international relations to a higher level.
First, the difference between theory and policy must be clarified in research, and theoretical research must not be simply confused with interpreting policy. As far as academic research is concerned, except for a few policy recommendations, most of the content should fall into the category of theoretical research. In theoretical research, we should focus on more macro and long-term issues rather than specific foreign policies. Of course, this does not mean that scholars should "turn a deaf ear to what is going on outside the window" and only focus on building ethereal castles in the air, but it does mean that theoretical research needs to be based on more profound and fundamental issues rather than temporary matters. For example, when talking about "great changes unseen in a century," what are the internal mechanisms and motivations of the "changes" in world politics, what are the trends of the "changes," and the changes in China's status, role and role in this profound and profound changes, etc., should be issues that academic research focuses on.
Second, Chinese w88 online casino betting relations research should avoid certain detours that the West has taken, or it is not necessary to follow the West in research. For example, w88 online casino betting relations research in the Western world, especially in the United States, has to a certain extent fallen into the dilemma of “methodology only” or “quantitative analysis only”. If you look at mainstream Western w88 online casino betting relations academic journals such as w88 online casino betting Organization, you will find that most of the papers use quantitative methods. Research in some Nordic countries has gone in another direction, focusing on the meaning and role of non-material factors such as discourse in shaping w88 online casino betting relations. In Cooperation and Conflict, the flagship journal of Nordic w88 online casino betting relations research, papers involving language, discourse, rhetoric and other issues account for a large proportion, and both of the above have limitations. For the former, scholars tend to pay too much attention to the scientific and abstract nature of research methods, while research conclusions are too simple, and there is a tendency to use complex methods to verify a simple proposition. For the latter, too much emphasis on non-material factors such as discourse makes the research "virtual", too metaphysical, and not highly consistent with the real world, making it difficult to analyze and solve various complex problems faced in the real world. At present, there is also a tendency to imitate the West in Chinese w88 online casino betting relations research. Therefore, how to learn from Western research results when building a local theoretical system is an issue that needs serious consideration.
Third, how to correctly treat Chinese traditional culture and traditional thoughts in research is related to the prospects of the development of Chinese schools. When constructing the theoretical system of the Chinese w88 casino, Chinese traditional culture and thought are important sources of knowledge. In the course of thousands of years of development, China has emerged not only with a large number of classic and excellent ideas that are still of great enlightenment significance, but also with some ideological dross. Therefore, how to extract the essence and eliminate the dross in research is a problem that scholars must face squarely. In addition, we must avoid simply using Western theoretical frameworks to “label” traditional Chinese thought, such as viewing Laozi as a realist and Mencius as a liberal (Peter M. Kristensen and Ras T. Nielsen, 2013, p. 27). In essence, this analytical framework and thinking mode are still Western. To build a theory of international relations with Chinese characteristics, we need to break away from Western thinking patterns and construct a theoretical system that is different from the West from the ontological and epistemological perspectives.
(The author is an associate professor at the w88 casino of International Relations, w88 casino)
